The First Libyan Civil War and the Syrian Civil War were part of the broader Arab Spring uprisings that began in late 2010 and spread across the Middle East and North Africa. Both civil wars began in 2011 and emerged from a wave of protests demanding democratic reforms and an end to authoritarian regimes.
In Libya, decades of ethnic marginalization and labor migration were compounded by the 2011 civil war, leading to mass displacement and a prolonged period of instability. In Syria, Bashar al-Assad’s use of forced displacement, sieges, and targeted attacks created the world’s largest refugee crisis, with millions still unable to return home. This policy brief is part of a larger forthcoming report that analyzes how Libya’s post- Qaddafi challenges can inform strategies for addressing displacement in post-Assad Syria.
Libyan Displacement and Migration
In the years leading up to Muammar al-Qaddafi’s regime collapse in October 2011, Libya had a complex relationship with displaced populations and migration. Prior to 2011, Libya was both a source and a transit hub for migration. Qaddafi’s rule, marked by ethnic persecution and political repression produced a displacement crisis.
Libya as a Migration Hub
From the 1970s onward, Libya was a destination and transit hub for migrants from sub- Saharan Africa, driven by factors, such as settlement policies, conflict, and drought. Many migrants sought employment in Libya’s construction and oil sectors, while others arrived as refugees from conflicts in West and Central Africa.
The situation for refugees in Libya worsened due to a lack of protection and legal distinction. Before Qaddafi’s death, Libya’s legal framework did not recognize the existence of refugees on Libyan territory. Refugees fell under the category of economic migrants and were not provided international protection.
By the early 2000s, rising anti-immigrant sentiment led to violent clashes between Libyans and migrant workers. In response, the Libyan government implemented harsh immigration restrictions, including mass deportations, arbitrary detentions, and physical abuse of migrants. From the early to mid-2000s, Libya deported tens of thousands of migrants.
Libya, once a destination for migrant workers, increasingly became a launching point for migration to Europe. Starting in 2003, European countries, particularly Italy, began collaborating with Libya to coordinate border patrol efforts between the two continents. In 2006, the European Union (EU), working closely with Libya, established a framework for cooperation between the EU and African nations to manage migration flows and prevent African migrants from reaching Europe. In 2010, leveraging migration as a political tool, Qaddafi threatened to flood Europe with migrants unless the EU paid Libya billions of euros to contain migration. Later that year, the EU and Libya agreed to a migration cooperation agenda that brought financial support to Libya in exchange for tighter border policies, detention efforts, and other migration controls.
Persecution of Ethnic and Political Repression
The Imazighen (singular: Amazigh), also known as Berbers, and the Tebu faced decades of discrimination and displacement. Qaddafi’s government banned Amazigh cultural identity such as speaking Tamazight, the traditional Amazigh language, cultural celebrations, and parents from giving their children Imazighen names. Qaddafi’s regime stripped the Tebu of citizenship, displaced them from their homes, and confiscated their lands, leading to mass internal displacement and statelessness. Many ethnic minorities remain stateless today.
Those who protested the regime including the Imazighen, Tebu, other minority groups, and political dissidents were swiftly arrested, expelled from their homes, or executed by the regime. Many political refugees during Qaddafi’s regime fled to neighboring countries like Tunisia and Egypt.
Leading up to Qaddafi’s assassination in October 2011, Libya was already experiencing significant displacement due to migration, decades of repression, and Libya’s first civil war that erupted in early 2011, protesting the regime. The conflict escalated humanitarian needs, with hundreds of thousands fleeing Libya or displaced internally.
Fleeing Libya in 2011
During Libya’s first civil war, many fled from Tripoli, Misrata, and Benghazi as Qaddafi’s forces cracked down on protests. Nearly one million individuals, mostly migrant workers and their families fled to other countries as the war escalated. Most fled to Tunisia and Egypt as the war escalated. Refugee camps quickly overflowed as humanitarian agencies struggled to provide enough food and medical aid.
Internal Displacement in 2011
More than half a million Libyans were internally displaced due to the conflict. As the conflict escalated and opposition forces advanced, the humanitarian response was weak. Many cities saw food and medical supply shortages. Internally displaced civilians were often stuck without access to clean water, shelter, or healthcare. Those who remained in Libya faced racial violence, particularly Tuareg minorities and those who were seen as Black African migrants because they were perceived as being Qaddafi loyalists. Many were detained, attacked, or killed by anti-Qaddafi forces.
Immediate Aftermath Post-Qaddafi
After Qaddafi’s fall in Libya, the country fragmented into rival political factions, with militias and armed groups controlling different regions, often overshadowing official government authority that was elected in 2012. While some Libyans were able to return from abroad or from within the country to their places of origin, minority groups were unable or unwilling due to a fear of continued persecution. As Libya descended into further chaos, long-term displacement became a reality for thousands. Libya’s weak governance persists today as the country’s third national election post-Qaddafi was postponed indefinitely in December 2021.
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USCRI, founded in 1911, is a non-governmental, not-for-profit international organization committed to working on behalf of refugees and immigrants and their transition to a dignified life.
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